Serial Killer
Title description: A brief review
Word count: 5265
Keywords: Mass murderer, Jack the Ripper, Extreme sexual violence, Cooling period, Signature patterns, Biological predisposition, Linkage blindness,
Excerpts:
Most people have difficulty differentiating between a serial killer and a mass murderer. A mass murderer is a person who kills several people, all at once or within a specified short period of time while a serial killer is one who kills several people over a long period of time, sometimes spanning several decades too (Ronald Holmes and Stephen Holmes, 2010). Technically, a serial killer is a person who kills a minimum of three people with a break or cooling period
They generally have stable jobs, family and friends, and remain far from any suspicion. These organized killers even anticipate questioning by the police. On the other hand, the disorganized killers are socially withdrawn, generally know their victims and kill instantly without planning. Despite leaving evidence on the crime scene, these disorganized killers do not follow crime on the media.
Most people have difficulty differentiating between a serial killer and a mass murderer. A mass murderer is a person who kills several people, all at once or within a specified short period of time while a serial killer is one who kills several people over a long period of time, sometimes spanning several decades too (Ronald Holmes and Stephen Holmes, 2010). Technically, a serial killer is a person who kills a minimum of three people with a break or cooling period between the killings.
The subsequent movie Monster made in 2003 raised our understanding of women serial killers to a new level. Convicted of murdering seven men, she was executed by lethal injection in 2002. Largely considered as America’s first women serial killer, she was also a mass media celebrity until her execution. A striking feature of Wuornos was that her murders seemed similar to that of a male serial killer.
Estimating the Time of Death
Title description: Estimating the time of death
Word count: 3148
Keywords: Suspect’s alibi, Corporal evidence, Anamnestic evidence, Physico-chemical changes, Blanched areas, Chronology of insects, Bloodstain RNA
Excerpts:
When deaths due to fire are claimed, it is important to determine if the death occurred during the fire or before the fire and also the cause of death. In case of infanticide, the prosecution needs to establish that the child was born alive and later killed. With regard to water, when a body is recovered, it is important to determine if the death was caused in water or the victim killed and then brought into water, based on time of death.
Practically an individual declared dead can have four or five points of time that are significant to determining death (Lynn and Cranford, 1999). The time 1 is the time when the patient loses the critical function like circulation or become comatose. Time 2 is the time at which the patient or victim is examined and determined to have lost the critical function. The time 3 is the time when the individual’s loss condition becomes irreversible. This is often not apparently known.
Livor mortis or lividity, also described as ‘dependent hypostasis’ is the first condition to set in after death. This condition is associated with the settling of blood, subsequent to the death. Blood constantly circulates in a live body but stops upon death, settling according to gravity. With the settling of blood, the skin that is in contact with the ground becomes evident.
The Conspiracy Behind the Assassination of JFK
Title description:
Word count: 3144
Keywords: Sniper attack, Acoustic evidence, Ballistics testing, Single bullet theory, Two hit theory, Forensics, Soviet double agent
Excerpts:
The entire shooting was filmed by a man named Abraham Zapruder. He had set his 8 mm Bell & Howell camera to the telephoto mode to capture the president on film. This film was later to become the most vital piece of evidence, since it was the only film that showed the president from an appropriate angle.
It should be noted here that the bullet had not struck any bone of JKFs body, and therefore it was impossible for it to be deflected along a trajectory to strike Connelly. However this ‘single bullet’ or ‘magic bullet’ theory was proved possible by ballistic evidence, fueling a debate.
When Zapruder’s film was subjected to a time lapse study and frame analysis, a time lapse factor became evident which indicated that the bullet from JKF was unlikely to strike Connelly. Also a bullet leaving JKF to cause seven wounds on Connelly looked too very unconvincing, thereby pointing to the possibility of a second shooter.
Sexual Assault Investigation
Title description: Rape investigation
Word count: 2077
Keywords: Embarrassment, Forensic examination, Physical injuries, Forensic medicine, DNA evidence, Genital trauma evidence,
Excerpts:
Thus sexual assault investigations are very crucial, particularly when the suspect denies charges; and physical evidences are very important in the investigations. The evidences collected against the offender are of varying nature like material evidence, biological evidence, medical evidence etc. and requires the expertise of physicians, laboratory technicians and crime scene investigators to compile them.
The medical examination would include visual examination of vagina and determination of tissue damage (ASU, 2006). The presence or absence of a rapists’ sperm is concluded by carrying out a pap smear test. When rape results in the death of the victim, then the examination should also include anus, mouth etc.
Dry items which are possible biological evidences need to be wrapped first in a clean paper, then put in a paper bag. When biological stains are formed in materials like cloths or rubber, and the items need to be folded prior to packing, then care should be taken to ensure that the specimen area is not folded. Otherwise, the biological material may be damaged and DNA testing would become difficult
Victimology
Title description: A brief literary review
Word count: 1636
Keywords: Predisposes, Blitz approach, Con approach, Victim blaming, Offender risk assessment, Resilience, Intricate social relationship
Excerpts:
While victimology technically includes all victims, including those of accidents, natural disasters, victims of power, civil unrest, terrorism, war crimes etc., it is more used in the context of criminal justice. Victimology either as a subfield of criminology or as a discipline by itself, becomes controversial when its goals are explored.
Victimology is an important aspect of crime investigative process as it throws light on to why these individuals were selected by offenders. Offenders often wait for a suitable victim, one that suits his needs, before making the first move. The methodology of victim selection in turn provides insight into how the offender behaves and how his future behavior could be.
Victimology has strayed away from science and theory to being something ideological, activist and policy oriented. Victimology conferences are no longer opportunities for scientific research sharing but rather platforms of political rhetoric. Victimology is being drawn more into social work rather than as a science
Mapping Police Stress
Title description: Article review
Word count: 996
Keywords: Pilot study, Occupational stress, Physiological measurements, Biofeedback devices, psychological problems, Perceptual framework
Excerpts:
Stress situations release stimulants like epinephrine and norepinephrine into the blood resulting in higher heat rate and blood pressure. There is also release of the hormones cortisol and thyroxin. The authors admit that while it would be ideal to measure several parameters like heart rate, blood pressure, cortisol levels, perspiration etc., these are practically impossible to measure real-time.
Deliberating on the association of stress in police, the article points out to the fact that higher rates of disease among the police population has been widely documented in the literature on health demographics. However police stress measurements generally relied on self-reports incorporating statements with Likert-type response options and scored checklists.
A major obstacle that was determined in the course of the pilot study was evident from the opinion of the test participant that the equipment was uncomfortable and that it could get stripped off while chasing, jumping, or fighting the suspects.
Gender and Crime
Title description: A brief study on the role of Gender in Criminology
Word count: 3212
Keywords: Feminist criminology, Delinquent females, Domestic family roles, Emotional disorders, Neuropsychological disorders, Childhood sexual victimization, Hard female criminals
Excerpts:
Men and women have differing offence rates and offence patterns, both as offenders and as victims. The sex of offenders has always been recorded throughout the history of criminal record keeping. Although generally speaking, criminal law is the same for men and women, there are some exceptions and opportunities that can be favorably interpreted for women.
Certain problems during childhood are responsible for a girl’s introduction to drug use, youth homelessness, survival sex, prostitution and other more severe crimes (Lind). The involvement of girls in deviant groups is limited and women gang members are generally under the strict control of their male equivalents.
The crimes committed by most women incorporate less violence like shoplifting, which induce police and judges to be more humane and show leniency. Women take advantage of their gender, making it difficult for the implementation of equal justice. The difference in the social position of men and women may be attributed to the dependency of women on men.
Criminological trait theories
Title description: A brief analysis of crime theories
Word count: 5453
Keywords: Mala in se, Mala prohibita, Schools of thought, Classical School, Positive School, Chicago School, Scientific approach, Macro level theories, Micro level theories, Social learning theory, Labeling theory, Choice theory
Excerpts:
Once a theory is determined, its feasibility is tested as to its effectiveness. The theory is applied to the real world for evaluation. A theory is determined as incorrect if the tests fail to support it. It is not meaningful to test other aspects of the theory if it fails a particular test.
Crime causation theories are complex as human behavior is complex. Most crime theories are formulated based on current and previous research on criminal behavior, also incorporating detailed observation and careful logic. Theories serve as a framework for understanding observed patterns.
It is interesting to note that the social control theory is more appropriate for initiation into delinquent behavior while the negative labeling aspect of the labeling theory causes delinquent behavior to be persistent.
The theory suggests that with dreams of opportunity, freedom and prosperity, people dream big and it becomes a powerful cultural and psychological motivation. But when the opportunities are less and when the dreams are not realized for the people, they take to crimes to realize their dreams.
Criminological theories on crime and workplace
Title description: What do criminological theories tell about crime and workplace?
Word count: 2963
Keywords: Occupational crimes, Workplace homicide, Legitimate occupation, Occupational deviance, White collar crime, Commercial bribery, Organizational crimes
Excerpts:
Sygnatur and Toscano suggest that the probability of one becoming an occupational homicide victim depends on the kind of occupation one is involved. Workers engaged in cash transactions are generally at greatest risk of workplace homicide, particularly taxicab drivers and chauffeurs.
The term ‘white collar crime’ had been evading a clear definition for a long time. Only some writers on white collar crime would attempt to define the term and that too very briefly, before moving to other issues and findings on the subject. Definitional and conceptual issues on white collar crime lie mainly on the description of the criminal-non-criminal distinction.
These federal sentencing guidelines have brought a change in the way corporations view and deal with potential wrongdoing. Small and large businesses, banks, law firms are covered by the guidelines intended to punish violations of federal crimes like antitrust, securities, employment laws, mail and wire fraud, commercial bribery kick backs and money laundering.
As the corporation is only a legal entity, the person or persons at the helm of the corporation’s affairs was held accountable. The corporation lacking a mind of its own was not found capable of a crime and therefore could not be held guilty of a crime. However, this is no longer the situation today.
Armed Robbery
Title description: A review of the crime and the sentencing polices
Word count: 2187
Keywords: Great train robbery, Natural environment, Interracial robberies, White victims, Commercial robbers, Police efficiency, Camouflage,
Excerpts:
In the academic and professional circles, armed robbery is listed either as a property or violent crime; while occasionally listed under both forms of crimes. While the British Crime Survey lists armed robbery as a property crime; the Annual Criminal Statistics identifies it as a violent crime.
Remarkable differences exist among the armed robbers in terms of commitment, motivation and choice of firearms. Literary reviews of armed robbery generally separate them into planners and opportunists, like the division made by Dermott Walsh (1986). Thomas Gabor (1987) saw four types of armed robbers, namely those chronic, professional, intensive and occasional.
These armed robbers seek desperately to get hold of cash in their first target itself rather than looking up for the best target available. They thus resort to extreme levels of violence to ensure its success, rather than considering other easier targets.
The threat of violence brings in a series of events where neither the offender nor the victims know what would happen next. Both the offender and the victim desperately anticipate and predict each other’s action, to seize opportunity and make a strike.
Crime scene Preparation
Title description: Role of first responder, photography and sketching
Word count: 4293
Keywords: Crime scene investigator (CSI), Disorganized crime scene, Recreate, Scene recognition, Scene documentation, Evidence collection, Primary observations, Contamination
Excerpts:
Macroscopic crime scene includes several crime scenes like a victim’s body left in a field, but was killed inside the house. Here the field, the house and the victim’s body are all part of a macroscopic crime scene. On the other hand, the microscopic crime scenes are individual trace evidences, like gun or tire marks, fingerprints etc.
The victims and their family and friends require to be controlled too, but with compassion. Such control contributes to the maintaining of the integrity of the crime scene while also minimizing contamination. A path for walking should be plotted. Once the detectives arrive, the responders need to direct them to the probable evidences and through the plotted way to get over there.
After a preliminary survey, the condition of the crime scene needs to be documented. The need of documentation is to produce a permanent record of the crime scene condition and the physical evidences. Crime scene documentation is a time consuming process requiring the first responder or investigator to be focused and organized throughout.
Although videotaping is an important tool facilitating a clear understanding of the crime scene, which cannot be offered by any other means, it cannot be used as a substitute for any other processes too. The video should have details of the crime scene like date, location, time etc., which can be exhibited by a printed show card or spoken by the operator.
Behavior Models and Crime
Title description: Criminal behavior
Word count: 2408
Keywords: Felonies, Misdemeanors, Population statistics, Weight of evidence, Brain chemical imbalances, Testosterone, Chromosomal abnormalities,
Excerpts:
Several case studies indicate that certain foods or food constituents induce neuropsychological disorders in the form of allergic or pharmacologic reactions which may even lead to chemical imbalances in the brain, resulting in behavioral disorders.
Molecular genetic investigations and epidemiological studies suggest that criminal activity may be genetically linked to mental abnormality. Prenatal disturbances or altered normal fetal development due to maternal smoking in pregnancy period is linked to violent offsprings.
Attempts to prevent high-risk children from taking to crimes have mostly failed. These attempts which included tougher laws and rehabilitation of offenders have failed because criminals have a certain level of brain malfunctioning, which avoids them from benefiting from these interventions
Causes of Crime
Title description: A brief analysis of crime theories
Word count: 1489
Keywords: Reciprocal determinism, Prenatal disturbances, Twin studies, Psychological motivation, Brain Chemical imbalances, Chromosomal abnormalities
Excerpts:
Others consider crime as a response to social conditions, stress and break down of law or social order. Criminological theories are logical facts, which help us in understanding and analyzing crime and their causes.
The radical theories of criminology, also involving Marxist sees crime as an outcome of fundamental economic differences. The set up here allows things as if there is a huge number of billionaires and millionaires, while actually the majority live in poverty.
The crime theories not only help in analyzing crimes and its causation, but also in suggesting ways to prevent or reduce such crimes. Similarly, the theories not only suggest appropriate punishments, but also elaborate on rehabilitation and transformation of such criminals.
Women and Crime
Title description: Women and crime
Word count: 1668
Keywords: Feminist Criminology, Deviance theories, Delinquency, Dominant social player, Female criminality, Gender gap, Survival sex
Excerpts:
While homosexual acts among men have been included under criminal law as crime, lesbian acts are not recognized as crimes. Male and female prostitution are differently seen from the legal point. Until 1925, women charged with crime committed in the presence of their husband were treated as acted on compulsion, under the English law.
While the need to understand and interpret crime and conviction, based on gender is a matter of debate, one thing to be emphasized here is the treatment of women prisoners. Since the biology and condition of women are different, they cannot always be on par with male prisoners. Pregnant prisoners need to be free of shackles, while exclusive arrangements need to be made for women prisoners with children.
Today, gender based studies and validated conclusions are considered important, given the high proportion of female offenders in both the juvenile system and the adult justice system. However till date, the gender-based studies in criminology are far from adequate.
The 1915 Case of Charles Stielow
Title description: The 1915 Case of Charles Stielow
Word count: 872
Keywords: Ballistics, Forensic science, Newton Detective Agency, Microscopic examination, First degree murder, Murder weapon, Naked eye observation, Modern fire arm identification
Excerpts:
Charles Stielow discovered the blood soaked body of Phelps’ housekeeper Margaret Wolcott at his door step. Panicked, he quickly ran to inform Mr. Phelps but was again shocked to see Mr. Phelps lying unconscious. Word spread and Sheriff Barlett was soon at the crime scene.
Hamilton said that the gun’s barrel had several projections which made corresponding marks on the bullets. When the jury wanted to see the markings, he however said that he was a highly technical man and so was able to see things which the jury cannot.
A reporter from New York World, Louis Seibold convinced the paper to take up the case. Accordingly detective Thomas O’ Grady was assigned, who found that Stielow and Green being illiterate were not capable of the complex language used. Also the detectives who helped in getting the conviction were on a contract basis, which meant they wouldn’t be paid unless the case was solved.
Opinion on Media, Crime, and Enforcement Activities
Title description: An opinion on media, crime and enforcement activities
Word count: 3027
Keywords: ‘V’ chip, Negative behavior, Controversial topic, Human rights abuse, Police brutality, Sexual assaults, Narcotics trade,
Excerpts:
The growing public opinion on the issue was mainly the cause for the establishment of the 1996 Telecommunication Act, which required television set manufacturers to have televisions sets modeled with a ‘V’ chip. The chip which indicated violence enabled parents to block out violent content.
Media can contribute immensely to the cause of the society by reporting in appropriate ways by which it cannot only garner public opinion and support for the law enforcement people, but also get people involved in tackling such issues. To achieve this, they should place their social cause and interests above their ratings and profits.
The CIA guidelines issued in 1995, requires approval of recruiting informants with human rights abuse background. Very often such approval process is a long and complex process (NCT, 1998). The National Commission on Terrorism has recommended that the Director of Central Intelligence should point out to the CIA that recruitment of informants on terrorism is one of the highest priorities.
The Murder of Police Officer Jonathan Wayne Irby
Title description: Cop killer Dennis Miller
Word count: 1657
Keywords: Hand written note, Harm analysis, Sixth Amendment Rights, Manslaughter, Negligent homicide, Medical examiner’s testimony, Handwriting expert
Excerpts:
With all evidence pointing out at his estranged Miller, the case took a turn when Miller was found in a critical condition in a Gainesville hotel room. The manager of a hotel in Gainesville reported to the police that someone had fallen in one of the rooms and had called the front desk for help. But when they went to help, they found the door locked.
The prosecution held the shooting as a crime and not an accident. Irby’s mother Erma Hayes was crying throughout the deliberations. When she had to testify, she said that she couldn’t get sleep; she could always see his face and waited for him to call her. A few jurors were moved by this and wiped away their tears.
Miller appealed the verdict on three grounds namely that the trail court had erred in denying her motion to suppress the statements retrieved from her house after accessing them without a warrant, including the testimony of four witnesses and failure to identify the charges with that of lesser offenses.
Courts and Adjudication (US)
Title description: A brief review
Word count: 3241
Keywords: Sentencing Reform Act, Sentencing Commission, Pretrail, Incarceration rates, Prison population, Misdemeanors
Excerpts:
The intermediate appellate courts in the federal system are the US Court of Appeals. Also referred to as Circuit Courts as each of them represent a geographical area called the circuit, these courts hear appeals against decisions of specialized federal courts, within their jurisdictions. There are several other federal courts like US Court of Federal Claims, the US Tax Court, and the US Court of International Trade.
However it is in the rural area courts that the administrative tasks of the judges are heavy which could include labor, budgeting and building maintenance. As part of their role as administrators, judges need to interact with legislators, county commissions and other executives of the state bureaucracy.
However during the 1950s and 1960s, new the incarceration rates and the biggest prison population theories and understanding on the effectiveness of punishments emerged, as a result of which indeterminate sentencing was viewed unfavorable. The arbitrary nature and inconsistency associated with indeterminate punishments was highlighted and it thus came in for criticism in the early 1970s.
The Introduction of Sentencing
Title description: The introduction of sentencing
Word count: 1516
Keywords: United States Sentencing Commission, Positivists, State of anarchy, Classical School, Deterrence model
Excerpts:
The theory developed by the Classical School advocated punishments to be in excess of the pleasure and benefits derived from committing the criminal act. The Positivists on the other hand saw criminal behavior as a result of factors like biological, psychological and social traits.
Future crimes would be lesser when punishments are fully implemented and effectively carried out. The idea of punishing is that the morality is restored when the wrongful act is condemned by a punishment. Although the victim’s suffering or loss cannot be made good at times, a punishment would hamper advantages of the crime.
At the federal level, the Sentencing Reform Act of 1984 was passed by the Congress which created the independent federal agency, the United States Sentencing Commission. The act also ended the concept of federal parole and fixed the time credited for good behavior of inmates at 54 days a year.
Why the US Criminal Justice System is unfair
Title description: CJS should reform people, not punish them
Word count: 6218
Keywords: Degrading punishment, Recidivism rates, Human dignity, Sentencing Project, Criminological research, Deterrence policy, Correctional institutions, Correctional officers, Parole officers
Excerpts:
In the six states of Illinois, Iowa, Louisiana, Maine, Pennsylvania and South Dakota, all life sentences do not have a possibility of parole. The lack of confidence in the parole systems coinciding with a tough approach against crime has resulted in more offenders being sentenced to irreducible life imprisonment in many jurisdictions.
Punishments and prisons also have a business angle and have become deeply entrenched in the economic and political system of the US. Influential people including the former Vice President Dick Cheney have invested millions of dollars in private prisons. Such people have a common objective of expanding the markets; want to have more prisoners, whom they can retain in captivity for profits.
It is indeed unfortunate that the US imprisons more black people than what South Africa did at the height of apartheid. In the capital Washington D.C, three of every four black men are expected to serve time in prison and such rates of imprisonment are evident in several black communities of America.
Prison systems and their mass imprisonments generate private profits by eroding social wealth. The GEO Group Inc., the world’s largest correctional and detention services provider has 18,000 employees around the world. The group is involved right from designing of prison to running its day-to-day operations.
Police Law Enforcement Officer
Title description: Police law enforcement officer
Word count: 2070
Keywords: Process of incarceration, Human Rights Watch, Computer forensics, DNA analysis, Human dignity, Radio frequency identification microchips, Miranda Rights, Sophisticated intelligence databases
Excerpts:
Police brutality is the use of excessive force to achieve a lawful purpose by the police. It often goes unnoticed because police themselves are part of the machinery that checks these offences. Police brutality in the form of unwanted shootings, beatings and kicking may sometimes result in serious injuries or even death of the suspect.
Law enforcement officers are primarily required to be in self-compliance with the law. The officers should be aware of law enforcements upon himself, when he is on duty, enforcing it. The presence of law enforcement officers in the force and the force itself has been established in line with the community welfare aspirations.
Although the toolkit does not bar police officials from receiving gifts and other items of value, it emphasizes that those receiving unsolicited gifts and items should report the receipt of such things. If required, they should also provide a detailed report of the circumstances under which they were received.
Irreducible Life Sentences
Title description: A brief review of human rights
Word count: 5765
Keywords: Life Imprisonment Without Parole (LWOP), Degrading punishments, Mandatory sentencing, International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR), Parole Board, Prison population, Amputation, Gubernatorial pardon
Excerpts:
Article10 (1) of the ICCPR requires that ‘All persons deprived of their liberty shall be treated with humanity and with respect for dignity’, while Article10 (3) states that, ‘The penitentiary shall comprise treatment of prisoners, the essential aims of which shall be their reformation and social rehabilitation’.
A report by the Child Rights International Network (CRIN) has found that 45 of the 54 Commonwealth nations have some type of life imprisonment for children. Several of these nations have implemented life imprisonment subsequent to their abolishing of the death penalty. Children, who have been saved from the death sentence, would now have to die in prison.
The logic of these countries to prohibit life imprisonment is similar to Germany’s stand that upholds life imprisonment as long as there are adequate release procedures. Although the US has paid little attention on how long a life imprisonment prisoner need to serve, other jurisdictions have ensured opportunities for eventual release.
In Nivette v. France and later in Einhorn v. France, both involving extradition of the offender to the US, the ECtHR recommended member states to ensure that all offenders had the prospect of applying for conditional release. The two cases were settled with the court holding that in case of extradition, neither of them would face an irreducible life sentence.
Estimating the Time of Death in Homicide Investigation
Title description: Forensic death investigation
Word count: 1624
Keywords: Forensic entomology, RNA analysis, death-time indicator, medico-criminal investigations, Necrophagous insects, vitreous humor, Potassium concentration
Excerpts:
The changes that occur in a dead body or post-mortem changes namely the rigor mortis, algor mortis, and the livor mortis are referred to as the cardinal signs of death. However it is difficult to estimate the time of death only based on post mortem changes, as there are several factors that can affect the nature of the rate of change.
Certain insects feed on particular areas of the corpse and based on an understanding of the chronology of insects and the fauna evident, the time of death can be estimated. Forensic entomologists can also establish if the body had been moved. For instance when a body is found indoors but is colonized with insects that are normally found in forests or outdoor locations, then it implies that the body had been brought in.
Based on hemoglobin parameters like color and solubility, forensic scientists can estimate the age of stain and thus time of death. RNA (ribonucleic acid) in bloodstains can be effectively used in determining its age. The different types of RNA namely the messenger RNA (mRNA), the transfer RNA (tRNA) and the ribosomal RNA (rRNA) have different decay rates.
Criminal Justice Management and Administration
Title description: Management and Administration of Criminal Justice
Word count: 6896
Keywords: Outlawed behavior, Research in criminal justice, Theoretical criminologists, Psychological criminology, Ecological criminology, French sociology, Maximum security prisons, Theoretical framework
Excerpts:
The contemporary criminal justice system may be described as a tool to carry out social control. Dangerous behaviors exhibited by people who are very destructive, need to be strictly controlled while people who have destructive capabilities need to be confined or monitored. The agencies associated with justice seek to deter such outlawed people and behaviors
Whenever a new policy is to be implemented, officers in the criminal justice system generally ask, ‘How have other cities handled this problem’? Exploratory studies are focused on establishing a basic understanding on new and unusual problems. Several methods are used in the exploratory research in criminal justice.
The FBI has developed a Behavioral Science Service Unit in 1978 at Quantico, Virginia to study and establish profiles of serial killer suspects. The profiles attempt to predict the age, race, sex, and habits etc. of the serial killers. Although all serial killers won’t fit a same profile, most killers can be characterized by a general profile. The general profile of a serial killer suggests they are mostly white males of 25 to 35 years of age, and have a similar type of victims.
Traditionally psychologists specializing with juvenile problems had worked in settings like residential adolescent units. However, it has now been established that psychology services for the juveniles and adolescents must be carried out in close association with a wider network of health, education and social services agencies.
Crime Punishment
Title description: Crime punishment and prison
Word count: 734
Keywords: Public scrutiny, Legal accountability, Harsh punishments, Surveillance and control, Ethical grounds, Manipulated or negotiated law
Excerpts:
Punishments appropriate for the crime committed would make people think before engaging in acts of crime. The threat of a punishment and its implementation would make people assess if the risks are worth the gains. When punishments are severe, people are more likely to refrain from committing the crime.
Prison officials have three strategies to have control over their prisoners namely the use of coercion, their legal authority and their personal authority (HM Prison Service, 2004). Although there are guidelines on how prisoners are ought to be treated under the law, in practice officials see these in conflict with how they should be practically treated, to uphold the penal order.
Prison officials no doubt work under harsh and risky circumstances and are accountable to both the society and prisoners. This however doesn’t justify their unilateral actions, particularly when it is against the interests of the prisoner or society. When prison officials fail to take decisions on legal or ethical grounds, the prison becomes a place of manipulated or negotiated law, where prisoners are ironically brought for breaking law.
The Court Martial of General Sinclair
Title description: Article review of a criminal case
Word count: 1512
Keywords: Forensic evidence, External pressure, Adultery, Improper conduct, Sexual misconduct, Sexual assault Reverse situation, Flimsy charges
Excerpts:
Sinclair’s court martial is one of the few occurrences in the US armed forces that involved high ranking officers. He is only the third army general in over half a century to face court martial proceedings. The general, aged 51, is accused of forcing a junior woman officer to have sex and threatening her against disclosing it. He is also charged with forcing sodomy, taking nude pictures of several woman soldiers and possession of pornography material while on duty.
An interesting development in the case is her revelations that she had recently stumbled on an iPhone that contained messages between her and Sinclair. The woman captain claimed that the phone hadn’t been used for years. However forensic evidence has shown that the phone had been used several times in the last year (Craig Whitlock). This has raised speculations on the true intentions of the accuser and if she is actually trying to hide facts.
The stand of the prosecution to reject the Sinclair’s guilty pleas despite inconsistencies and gaps in the testimony of the female captain show that the prosecution is definitely under pressure. There is no doubt that under normal circumstances, Sinclair would have gone scot-free. Any reprieve for the general would now be seen as the military not wanting to punish its high ranking offenders.
Cyber Crime
Title description: A brief review of its relevance and implications
Word count: 2084
Keywords: Nano-computing, Neural networks, Child pornography, Hacking, Online piracy, Intellectual assets, Critical infrastructure, Cyber crime legislation
Excerpts:
Another important aspect of cyber crime is cyber terrorism, which is the use of cyber space for terrorist activity. Terrorists exploit the advantages of the Internet, by making themselves available on the Internet. Though the Internet is easy to be accessed, it is hardly regulated while facilitating quick flow of information to huge audiences. It is therefore no wonder that there are several websites of terrorist organizations, used to promote their ideology.
Companies are largely successful in detecting and preventing non employees from accessing their information systems. An employee with legitimate credentials has more opportunities to steal a company’s data and is difficult to be identified. Also intellectual property thefts could go unnoticed for a long time, sometimes even years. Competing businesses or even governments can manage to have a spy inside to illegally gather information.
Distribution systems for electricity and water use remote sensors for automated safety precautions. Sectors like defense, civil aviation, communications etc. all have their normal day to day functioning relying on informational networks. A security breach in any one of these systems can have catastrophic consequences that could even bring the nation to a standstill.
The Federal Bureau of Investigation
Title description: The Federal Bureau of Investigation
Word count: 1853
Keywords: Corps of Special Agents, Bureau of Investigation, Identification Services Section (ISS), Combined DNA Index System (CODIS), National DNA Index System (NDIS), Directorate of Intelligence (DI),
Excerpts:
In 1932, the Bureau of Investigation got a name change when it was named the ‘United States Bureau of Investigation’. Next year, there was a division in the bureau to include the ‘Bureau of Prohibition’ (FBI.gov). This remained for almost two years, during which time, there was much public confusion. A permanent name change then occurred in 1935, when it was called the ‘Federal Bureau of Investigation’.
By placing a suspect’s finger on a fingerprint reader installed in patrol cars, officers would be able to identify delinquent people. The Uniform Crime Reports (UCR) which contains data on all crimes reported to law enforcement throughout the country is provided to the FBI.
Special police schools and seminars are also conducted by the FBI Academy for personnel involved in criminal justice. The Academy’s forensic wing trains state and local crime laboratory investigators. The Engineering Section of the FBI is involved in the field of forensic examination and expert testimony of magnetic tape recordings.
Forensic Radiology
Title description: A brief overview
Word count: 1659
Keywords: Imaging technologies, Radioactive substances, Imaging protocols, Back scatter technology based scanners, Millimetre wave scanner, Micro-X-ray fluorescence or MXRF
Excerpts:
Mobile X-ray units are deployed by governments to scan vehicles for bombs and contraband. The Department of Homeland Security too use mobile X-Ray technology to check truck trailers for their cargo. These mobile x-ray screening systems can be rapidly deployed and may even have baggage scanner,
Full body scanners raise the issue of privacy as observers are able to see the naked bodies. Governments have initiated action to address this issue by using masking techniques which avoid intimate personal details being distinctly seen. Also the display of the person’s scanned image is not in public view. Authorities have also ensured that the images would not be stored or shared.
The duties of a forensic radiologist is to offer consulting services to law enforcement agencies, medical examiners and assist in criminal investigations. Alternatively called the forensic consultant, they need to have a medical school degree or have completed residency training in radiology.
Prostitution in US
Title description: A brief analysis of the legality of prostitution in the US
Word count: 805
Keywords: World’s oldest profession, Convention on the Elimination of all Forms of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW), Sexually transmitted diseases, Street prostitution, Human trafficking victims, Modern-day slave trade
Excerpts:
Some of these countries may have restrictions and even criminalization of certain aspects of prostitution like pimps, health testing, brothel restrictions, soliciting methods, advertising etc.. However, one of the most notable countries which haven’t legalized prostitution is US. Today in most states of the US, prostitution is still illegal.
The Foreign Relations Committee of the US Senate had passed the CEDAW on September 29, 1994, but it has still not been ratified by the full Senate. The provisions of the CEDAW allows voluntary prostitution as a profession of choice, like any other profession; and access to healthcare including family planning, which includes abortion.
About 70% of women prostitutes and 20% of male prostitutes are arrested. An interesting fact behind the arrests is that about 85 – 90% of the arrested are street prostitutes, although street prostitutes account for only 20% of prostitutes in US.
